UCSJ Note: The following article by Professor Mikhail Degtiar appeared earlier this year in the Swedish journal "Central Asia and the Caucasus." According to the author, the government of Uzbekistan seized and burned copies of the journal in which this article appeared. The journal appears in English and in Russian; none of the mistakes in the English translation have been corrected by UCSJ. Information on antisemitism in Uzbekistan appears near the end of the article.

The Jews of Uzbekistan - the end of the epoch.
(As published in "Central Asia and the Caucasus", Sweden, issue 4(10), www.ca-c.org)

The Jews is one of the most ancient nations on the territory of Central Asia and, in particular, Uzbekistan. So, for example, while Turk tribes emerged in this region only in 6-9th centuries CE, Jews had been here almost a thousand years earlier. First Jews came to this land after its conquest by Persian Empire in 5-6th centuries BC. In ancient Persia existed developed and prosperous Jewish communities whose members spread over the territory of the whole Empire as merchants and even government officers. In the later years of the Empire, Jews were for some unknown reasons persecuted and in about 360 BC many were deported to Hyrcania (Gorgan) on the Caspian shore, near the Iranian-Turkmen border.

First archeological evidence of Jews in Central Asia goes back to first century BC when those territories were under control of Greek-Bactrian and Parthian kingdoms. In 1954, during excavations in Turkmenistan (Merv, Bairam-Ali), Soviet archeologists found fragments of pottery with Hebrew letters and names. Ancient synagogues were also unearthed. Establishment of Silk Road between China and the West in the second century BC created a new movement of Jews to Central Asia.

The term "Central Asia" didn't exist before English and Russians coined it in the 19th century during the Great Game. The region was constantly conquered and different states arouse from there, and parts of it had different names throughout the history. In ancient times it was known as Bactria, Sogdiana, Khorezm, Davan' (Fergana), Margiana, Parthia and Tocharistan. After Arab conquest the general area was known as Maverannahr (Transoxonia) and Khorasan. During Mongol rule it was called Chagatai Ulus. In succeeding centuries parts of it were called Bukhara, Kokand and Khiva. Russians named it Turkestan and now five states control that ancient land: Uzbekistan, Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.

During the first centuries CE the flow of Jewish migrants to Central Asia increased owing to the Jews of Babylonia and Palestine. Undoubtedly among the new settlers were those Jews who by some miracle managed to escape during the Judean War (66-70CE) and Bar Kohba uprising (132-135CE). After the latter uprising the Romans had finally banished Jews from Jerusalem and parts of Judea. At that time Jewish communities existed in Merv, Termez and Balkh. Their presence is confirmed not only by archeological findings but also by the epistle that was sent in the first century CE by the Patriarch Gamaliil I to the Jews of Persia and "all other Jews-expellees" including Jews of Central Asia. The Babylonian Talmud can be regarded as the second definite source about the Jews of Central Asia. There can be found a story of some Jew named Samuel bar Bisna who lived in Merv in the first half of 4th century CE.

Up to the Arab conquest, Central Asia had an amalgam of different nations and religions. Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrism, Christianity and Judaism existed side by side. Central Asia was also a safe heaven for persecuted Jews of Iran. Persecution of Jews in neo-Persian Empire (Sassanian Kingdom) began with Yezdigerd III (440-457) and continued during the rein of his son Firuz (458-485). Thousands of Jews were massacred, as was in the case of Jews of Isfahan; Jewish academies in Babylon were closed, and many were killed and expelled. Persecutions continued on and off during the reins of Sassanid kings Kavid and Hormuzd IV. No wonder that when Arabs invaded Persia local Jews welcomed the new comers.

The Arab conquests brought about 90 percent of world's Jewry under their rule. As non-Moslems, Jews were considered "ahl al-dhimma" (the protected people) and their local institutions remained independent. But at the same time discriminatory laws known as the "Terms of Omar" were issued. Jews had to pay special taxes, jizia (the poll-tax) and the kharaj (land-tax), from which Moslems were exempted. Jews were prohibited to wear arms and ride horses, and had to wear clothes different than that of a Moslem. With times new laws were created and some made void, but generally the laws remained the same as in the early Islamic era.

The land-tax made it expensive for Jews to engage in agriculture or to own land, so they almost exclusively turned to commerce and crafts. It wasn't long before Jews controlled economies of Moslem countries. Jewish trade connected the Moslem east with the Christian west, and Jewish traders were often used to head delegations to Europe. Jews were engaged in every profitable profession. There were jewelers, money-changers and money-lenders, dyers, tanners, barbers, butchers, shoemakers, blacksmiths and others. Few became court ministers, financiers and surgeons. A significant share of trade on the Silk Road was in the hands of Jews.

The Silk Road existed for 1600 years until it was superseded by sea travel in late 15th century, and during that time Central Asia experienced its greatest period. Bukhara, Samarkand, Termez, Merv and Urghench became great and prosperous cities. Jews played a great role in development of the Silk Road by engaging in trade. Jewish traders, called Radanites, established trading posts along the Silk Road. Many settled in China itself. In Kaifeng, a city in central China, Jewish community has survived up to the middle of 20th century. They built their synagogue in 1163 and lived in total isolation until being discovered by Christian missioners in 18th century. It is thought that first Jews settled in China around 500 CE, and the only way they could get there was by the way of the Silk Road which went through Central Asia, and there is no doubt that Chinese Jews once were a part of Jews of Central Asia.

At the early Islamic period, a major center of Jewish life in Central Asia was Samarkand. In the 12th century, a great Jewish traveler and explorer Benjamin of Tudela wrote that there were as many as 30,000 Jews in that city. There is no doubt that Jews also lived in other major cities of the region: Bukhara, Merv, Termez, Balkh, Gerat, Nishapur and Urgench. Many Central Asian Jews became widely known in Islamic world as doctors and scientists. Sagl Al-Tabari from Tabaristan (near the Caspian sea, around 800 CE) was one of them. He was renowned among the Arabs as a doctor and mathematician, translated the "Almagest" of the Greek astronomer Ptolemeus into Arab language. Having been far from the Jewish academies of Iraq, some local Jewish scholars began developing their own views on Judaism. Most notable are two of them: Hivi Albalhi from Balkh, and Menachem of Ghazni. They disagreed on some aspects of Judaism with academicians in Iraq.

Mongol invasion in the 13th century and succeeding wars hit hard on Jews of Central Asia. Many towns were ruined by Chenghiz Khan and many centuries-old Jewish communities were destroyed as well. Only the community of Bukhara was left intact and became a shelter for survivors from all other cities. Since those times Bukhara has grown to be a major center of Jewish life in Central Asia. Perhaps then a term "Bukharian Jews" was made up. Humble remains of once great communities also survived in Balkh, Merv and Khorezm. In 13th century began a decadency of local Jewry that lasted, with some small intervals, until the end of 18th century.

Undeniably, some revival of Jewish life occurred during the reign of Timur or Tamerlane (1370-1405). This conqueror, famous for his ruthlessness, violence, destruction and extermination of millions of people, nevertheless had one positive feature of his character: patronage of trade, art and city-building. However, all of the above concerned only his capital Samarkand, his native town Shakhrisabz and some neighbor towns. In order to restore Samarkand, that had to turn into the capital of the world, Timur brought together artisans, craftsmen and scholars from all occupied countries. Apparently, Timur favored Bukharian Jews because during his reign they settled in his native Shakhrisabz and in Tashkent. After the take-over of Bukhara Timur moved several hundreds of Jewish families from that city to Samarkand that has steadily become one of the most important centers of Jewish life in the region.

A brief period of revival during the reign of Timurids ended in the beginning of the 16th century, when Central Asia was invaded and conquered by nomadic Uzbek tribes. They established strict observance of Islam and Central Asia fell into Dark Age of religious fundamentalism. At the same time the Silk Road lost its importance and soon was lost in sand. Trade had declined and science was forgotten. All this had negative impact on development in Central Asia for the next 300 years.

The events had negatively impacted Jewish life as well. Being isolated from the rest of the world and denied their basic rights, they were constantly humiliated by local authorities. The authorities, clergy and common illiterate people regarded Jews as aliens, who in the ocean of Islamic world didn't want to lose their religion and their distinctiveness. Jews lived separately in their quarters trying not to leave them without necessity, because anytime they could be subjected to the mockery of the crowd. They were forbidden to ride horses and could use only donkeys. They didn't have a right to wear a waist belt and had to girdle themselves with a rope. Jews were made to pay an extra tax for "life confer", once a year they had to come to the governors palace to be beaten twenty times by the stick for forthcoming sins. To be relieved from this punishments they had to pay one more tax. Many rulers forced Jews to convert to Islam giving them a choice: death or Islam. Some Jews refused to choose Islam and were brutally executed. Others, not so strong, in order to protect themselves and their families converted to Islam. They were known as "chala". "Chala" secretly observed Jewish customs but had to go to mosque in order not to attract suspicion. Their lives were very hard and full of martyrdom, neither Jews, nor Moslems trusted "chala". They married only among themselves and generally lived in poverty. Some others, pursuing the benefits of Islam, absolutely forgot Judaism and very soon assimilated. Even now among Tadjiks and Uzbeks some claim that their ancestors were Jews.

By the middle of the 18th century practically all of Bukharian Jews lived in Bukharian Emirate. Cities with major Jewish populations were Bukhara, Samarkand and Shahrisabs. The rest lived in towns of Zeravshan River valley. Few also lived in Tashkent and Ferghana Valley. From the late seventeen-hundreds Bukharian-Jewish population began to grow as a result of a natural growth and immigration of Jews from Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Palestine and even Yemen to Central Asia. Forced conversions and massacres in Meshed in the first half of 19th century made many Jews to leave for Bukhara, Samarkand and Ferghana. Same was with the Jews of Herat in 1854, when invading Persians expelled all of them from the city. Before the Russian conquest Bukharian Jews were living in almost every city and town of Central Asia. By 1865 considerable Bukharian-Jewish populations lived in Kermine, Katta-Kurgan, Karshi, Hissar, Dushanbe, Chardjuy, Merv, Tashkent, Khodjent, Kokand, Margelan, Andijan, Namangan, Osh, Chimkent and Turkestan. But the biggest population growth was in Samarkand. Before 1843 Bukharian Jews lived in four parts/quarters of the city, but soon the need was for more land. Emir Nasrullo Bahadur (1826-1860) granted a permission to sell the land for 10,000 silver tenghe, that was a huge sum at the time. The new quarter was called «Mahallai Yahudien» (the Jewish Quarter) and exists to this day. For many years from 1837 to 1878 the leader of Jewish community in Samarkand was Moshe Kalantar. A very respected leader he did much for the good of the Jewish community.

Some Jews served the governments of emirs; one of them, Aroni Kandin served as minister of Finances under emir Muzaffareddin (1865-1885). Bukharian Jews were one of the first who began using Russian and English goods and wear European clothes. With their caravans they went to Russia, Western Europe, Iran, Turkey and Palestine. In Russia, beginning from 1833, a number of government bills were issued that permitted Bukharian Jews to settle on the territory of the Empire and trade at the fairs in Orenburg, Troitsk and Nijny Novgorod (Russian Jews were banned to do that). This increased the influence of Bukharian Jews on the economy of the Emirate and its trade with Russia.

Since 1853 Russians were constantly pressing against Central Asian Khanates and in 1865 they took Tashkent. Eight Bukharian Jews took part in a ceremony of official annexation of Tashkent to Russia. Seeing the Russians as their liberators from the tyranny of emir the Bukharian Jews in many ways helped the Russians to advance. When a Russian garrison in Samarkand was surrounded (1868) many Jews joined the Russians and supplied them with food and water. In the army of Russian general Skobelev, that defeated the Kokand Khanate, served Bukharian Jew Boruh Yushvaev.

During the initial years of the Russian rule Bukharian Jews were considered the most loyal part of Turkestan's population, and the government actively encouraged their participation in economical development of the region. This is confirmed by the fact, that Bukharian Jews were officially granted Russian citizenship, providing they joined the merchants' guilds. Apart from that, Bukharian Jews of Turkestan were relieved of heavy taxes and various forms of discrimination, they were given a full freedom of worship. During the short period, from 1865 to 1916, hundreds of Jewish families owned private property: land, hotels, shops, plants and manufactures. The most renowned and wealthy among them were the families and dynasties: in Kokand - brothers Vadiyayev, the Potelyahovs, Simkhaevs; in Tashkent - the Dovidovs; in Samarkand - the Mullokandovs, Kalantarovs, Kalendarevs, Pinhasovs, Hodjabekovs, Rubinovs, Fuzailovs, Iglanovs, Yagudaevs and many others. The Vadyayevs' holding alone included 30 cotton-processing plants and bought each year in Fergana valley about 7-8 millions poods of crude cotton. In 1916 the Vadyayevs purchased the Ivanovo-Voznesenskaya manufacture, thus founding a huge textile corporation that comprised cotton fields of Fergana, railroads, cotton-processing plants and Ivanovo's textile manufactures. Tens of thousands people were employed on their factories. Moshe Mullokandov (1839-1902), one of the richest men of Samarkand, was a personal representative of the emperor Aleksandr II and the chief treasurer of the Russian Bank in Samarkand.

At the same time the Ashkenaz (European) Jews began migrating from Russia, Ukraine and Poland to Turkestan, especially during the First World War. With the assistance of Bukharian Jews they settle down and build their own infrastructure - synagogues, cemeteries etc. Generally, they settled in Tashkent, Fergana and Samarkand. Both Jewish communities - Ashkenaz and Bukharian - coexist in the spirit of brotherhood and mutual aid.

With the establishment of Soviet rule on the territory of Central Asia and foundation of Soviet Republics Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenia and Kirgizia, the Jewish life there seriously deteriorated. The nationalization and confiscation of private property began. As a substantial part of business was controlled by Jews, they were the first to suffer. Many rich Jews ran away leaving behind their houses, shops, plants. Everything of any real value was confiscated. Because of the vague suspicion of gold-hiding or anti-soviet activity thousands of innocent Jews were arrested, many of them without trial were exiled to Siberia or shot. However, the most terrible event in the history of local Jews was pogrom, carried out by the Red Army fighters in the beginning of March 1918 in the village Kermine (Navoi). After a disastrous attempt of Bolsheviks to take over Bukhara and overthrow the Emir, they had to retreat and found themselves in Kermine. There they accused local Jews of anti-revolutionary activity and began ransacking houses and shops, beating up and shooting people. Then some soldiers rounded up several dozens young women in the synagogue and raped them. This incident shocked Jews of Turkestan who never experienced such pogroms. At that difficult time hundreds of Jews fell victims of the "bosmachs" (Islamic rebels). Regrettably, those bandits are now proclaimed national heroes in Central Asian states. The self-defense groups against bosmachs were formed in Samarkand, Shakhrisabz and other towns with considerably large Jewish population.

Throughout 1920s and 1930s thousands of Jews, fleeing atheism, arrests and repressions, escaped to Palestine. With the assistance of local guides they crossed the borders of Afghanistan and Iran, where for long months and even years they were waiting for entrance visas from English officials. The road to Palestine was long, hard and dangerous, Jews suffered from brigands' attacks, hunger, diseases. The main routes to Palestine were through Iran, Iraq, Syria. Others went through Afghanistan and India, then, by sea, to Basra, Iraq. Many Jews from Russia deliberately moved to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to be able to cross the board there. For instance, so did the parents of upcoming prime-minister of Israel Ariel Sharon.

At the same time, many Jews of Uzbekistan accepted the Soviet authority and served it. A number of Jews worked in government institutions of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, occasionally reaching substantially high posts. So, Avrom Abdurakhmanov was the Peoples' Commissar (minister) of Justice of Uzbekistan, while Iskie Yuabov was the head of the Department of National Minorities of Uzbekistan. David Alimov was the Chairman of the Supreme Court of Uzbekistan. Ilja Leviev was the Secretary of the Supreme Council (verhovny soviet) of Tajikistan. With the foundation of the Tajik Soviet Republic, thousands of Bukharian Jews ( Tajik is their near-native language) were sent there from Tashkent, Bukhara and Samarkand as officials in government institutions, education and public health. Simultaneously, from the European part of the USSR to Uzbekistan were directed, among others, thousands of Jews - specialists in various fields. Those were doctors and engineers, teachers and lawyers, musicians and artists. Some came here against there will, they were expelled as politically unstable opponents of the communist authorities. They steadily formed a Jewish elite in Uzbekistan in 1930s-1940s. Such outstanding persons can be named as M. I. Levin, B. I. Berliner, M. Y. Slonim, M. M. Serebryany, B. L. Manelis, R. M. Vurman, H. Y. Mankus, L. G. Milberg, Z. Y. Vainshtein, L. E. Garber and many others.

The Second World War played a very special role in the formation of the Jewish population of Uzbekistan. Over a million Jews-refugees from the European part of the USSR and Eastern Europe migrated through Uzbekistan during this period. Those people found here a shelter from Holocaust. They were not just saving their lives, but also their cultural heritage. More than 100 rescued scrolls of Torah (Holy Scriptures) were brought to Uzbekistan. Some of them are still unique and priceless for the Jewish religion and culture.

About 200 thousands of Jews stayed on after the War. Those were not just tailors, cobblers and craftsmen. Most of them were intellectuals and, as the result, percentage of Jews working in the sphere of education, medicine, science, technology and culture in Uzbekistan was higher than elsewhere in the USSR. Those people have taught and raised forthcoming Uzbek establishment that took up leading heights in 1960-80s. Perhaps this can explain relatively low level of state anti-Semitism in Uzbekistan at that time. Unlike in Russia and Ukraine here weren't any litigations against Jews-dissidents and almost no "anti-Zionist" (anti-Semitic) books and articles were published. With the beginning of Jewish emigration in 1970s "refusniks" emerged but those were policies of Moscow, not Tashkent. Under such conditions Jews sometimes managed to occupy significant posts, there were executive industrial managers, major government officers even vice-ministers. On the other hand anti-Semitism existed on all levels of Uzbek society. So, Jews were always divided into "good" Jews and others - cruel, selfish, guileful "kikes", building their secret conspiracies.

The situation began to deteriorate during the period of disintegration of the USSR and foundation of the independent Republic Uzbekistan in 1991. Abrupt growth of nationalism, chauvinism and xenophobia in Uzbek public consciousness, rapid revival of Islam caused a sudden increase in the level of emigration of national minorities and, certainly, Jews (both Bukharian and Ashkenaz). During the following 5-6 years tens of thousands Jews were annually leaving the country. The numbers show the picture comparable only to the results of the Mongol conquest of Central Asia. So, there are only 5-8 thousands Bukharian Jews left, while 160 thousands emigrated (50 thousands to the USA, more than 100 thousands live in Israel). The Jewish Quarter of Samarkand, where in the middle of 80s lived more than 10 thousands Bukharian Jews, has almost totally emptied. In Jewish houses live Moslems. There are just about 15-20 thousands Ashkenaz Jews (mainly in Tashkent), and 75 thousands of them emigrated.

Uzbek officials didn't impede this process. However, they didn't hesitate to play a "Jewish trump". Desperately in need for international recognition, Uzbekistani government very soon established diplomatic relationships with Israel, set contacts with international Jewish organizations, sponsored visits of major Jewish leaders. The authorities allowed the establishment of Jewish Cultural Centers in Tashkent, Samarkand and Bukhara. In 1992 was opened the Israeli Cultural Center and a branch of The Jewish Agency "Sohnut" in Tashkent. Began operating Jewish Sunday schools and also Jewish religious schools - "yeshibot" for boys and "mahon" for girls. For those purposes in Uzbekistan was even admitted Rabbi David Gurevitch, a representative of the "Habad-Lubavitch" movement, who immediately proclaimed himself a Chief Rabbi of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. However, all this bustle can't lead to the real revival of Jewish life, as the main task of Jewish organizations in Uzbekistan is to encourage those Jews who are still left here to emigrate to Israel.

Emigration is being stimulated by the really hard conditions in which the Jews of modern Uzbekistan live. The Jews can't forget pogroms in Andijan, where Jewish homes were burned and ruined, their property ransacked. Jews are forced to sell their houses for a song or just leave them. The anti-Jewish leaflets are being spread among the local population. On the doors and walls of Jewish homes appear inscriptions threatening them. Several times over the last years Jewish graves were subjected to the acts of vandalism. For instance, more than 100 graves in the Jewish part of the Dombrabad cemetery in Tashkent were shattered and desecrated. Other similar events are known too. There are numerous facts of persecution of Jews by Uzbek security services. The most renowned fact - the case of 70 years old Bukharian Jew Iosif Koinov, who was accused of virtually ritual murder of a young Uzbek, arrested, brutally tortured in prison and only interference of international Jewish organizations helped to avoid a new "Beilis affair". A former Tashkent resident Anna Korol who had earlier emigrated to Israel dared to go back to Uzbekistan, already being Israeli citizen. She was arrested, thrown into prison and viciously raped by Uzbek police officers who tried to squeeze money from her. And this is just a small fraction of what have actually happened to Jews in this country. Every time when such facts become known, Uzbek officials pretend that they don't know about it and promise to punish culprits. Whether it happens or not we don't know, however it's known that the practice of organized violence goes on.

So, drawing a conclusion, it should be noted that almost two-millennia old presence of Jews on the territory of Uzbekistan comes to its end. No doubt, some Jews will probably stay in this country for some reason or other. Even in Iraq and Iran live some Jews. However, it's perfectly clear that a new revival of economical and cultural life of Jews in Uzbekistan can't happen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LITERATURE RESOURCES USED IN THIS WORK

Benyaminov, Meyer R. (1992) Bukharian Jews. New York: Gross Brothers Printing Co.

Encyclopedia Judaica. (1971-72) New York: Macmillan.

Hopkirk, Peter.( 1994) The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia. New York: Kodansha

Hidoyatov, Timur. (1991) Moya Rodnaya Istoria. Tashkent: Ukituvchi.

Gretz, Genrih. (1906) Istoria Evreev Ot Drevneyshih Vremen Do Nastoyaschago. Odessa: Priboj.

Mullokandova, Rena. (1994) Dinastia Mullokandovyh. Jerusalem: Steymatsky.

BRIEF PROFESSIONAL BIOGRAPHY

Dr. Mikhail Degtiar, PhD since 1982, professor of sociology. From 1994 to 2000 chairman of Tashkent Jewish Cultural Center. In 1999 - 2001 works as a visiting-professor in Germany, Israel and Russia

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